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METHODS AND APPROACHES IN LANGUAGE TEACHING
IN BRIEF
IN BRIEF
Gültekin Boran (Ph. D) Gazi
University Ankara
gboran@gazi.edu.tr
gboran@gazi.edu.tr
Abbreviations:
T: Teacher
Sts: Students
L1: First Language, Mother Tongue
L2: Second Language, The language the students aim to learn
T: Teacher
Sts: Students
L1: First Language, Mother Tongue
L2: Second Language, The language the students aim to learn
THE GRAMMAR TRANSLATION
METHOD (GTM)
1.
Learning Theory: Deductive learning is
essential. First, the teacher gives rules explicitly then the rules are
reinforced with examples and exercises.
2.
Language Theory: Language is for
understanding the literature. Translation is the way to learn the language. Oral
communication is not primarily important. Written language is superior to
spoken language. Students also learn the structure of their own native
language. Those who study a foreign language become more cultured and
intellectual.
3.
Culture: Culture is limited to
literature and fine arts.
4.
Teachers' Role: Teacher is the strict
authority. Classes are teacher centred.
5.
Students' Role: Students are the passive
receivers of the new information. The teacher starts the activities and directs
them. Students are supposed to memorise the rules and the new vocabulary with
their meanings in their native language.
6.
Interactions: Very often “Teacher –Student” interactions occur. Rarely
“Student – Student” interactions also
occur.
7.
Vocabulary Teaching: The most common
vocabulary teaching technique is “the memorisation of long lists of vocabulary
with their equivalents in the students’ native language. Other techniques are
-Teaching “cognates” (i.e., “cinema –sinema”, “theatre – tiyatro” ..., etc).
- Using synonyms and antonyms
-Teaching “cognates” (i.e., “cinema –sinema”, “theatre – tiyatro” ..., etc).
- Using synonyms and antonyms
8.
Grammar Teaching: The teaching of
grammar is deductive. The teacher introduces the rules explicitly and wants the
students to apply these rules to new examples in exercises. Students are
supposed to memorise the rules. In order to explain the rules, the teacher uses
comparison and contract between the students’ native language grammar and
target language grammar. Translation is a common way to clarify the meanings of
the new grammar patterns in the target language.
9.
Materials: Texts from the target
language literature are used. The teacher may either write the text or use an
authentic literary text.
10.Syllabus: Structural syllabus (i.e., list of structures to be taught during
the course) is used. The order of structures starts from the easiest
11.Role of L1: L1 (i.e., students’ native language) has an important function in
teaching vocabulary and grammar. Since oral communication in the target
language is not important, classroom instructions are given in L1.
12. Evaluation: Translation is an important technique to test students’ progress in
the target language. In addition, “fill-in-the-blank” type test items are also
used. Synonyms, antonyms, and cognates can be asked to test vocabulary in
formal tests. Reading passages and comprehension questions about the passages
can also take place in tests as the reading section.
13.Goals and Objectives: Among the goals are to teach translation, to read and understand
literary texts in the target language, to make students aware of their native
language structure and vocabulary, and to improve students’ mental capacities
with grammar exercises.
14.Error Correction: The teacher corrects the errors strictly. Errors are not tolerated.
Accuracy is emphasised strictly. Accuracy means grammatical correctness.
15.Student's Feelings: There is no information about how GTM deals with students’ feelings.
V
Therefore, we cannot consider this method as a humanistic approach.
16.Techniques:
1. Translation of a Literary Passage: Students
translate a passage from the target language into their native language. The
passage provides the focus for several classes: vocabulary and grammatical
structures in the passage are studied in the following lessons.
2. Reading
3. Antonyms / Synonyms: Students are given one
set of words and are asked to find antonyms in the reading passage. A similar
exercise could be done by asking students to find synonyms for a particular set
of words.
4. Cognates: Students are taught to recognise
cognates by learning the spelling or sound patterns that correspond between the
languages. Students should be aware of “true cognates” (i.e., theatre-tiyatro)
and “false cognates” (i.e., apartment-apartman).
5. Deductive Application of Rule: Grammar rules
are presented with examples. Exceptions to each rule are also noted. Once
students understand a rule, they are asked to apply it to some different
examples.
6. Fill-in-the blanks: Students are given a
series of sentences with words missing. They fill in the blanks with new
vocabulary items or necessary items of grammatical features.
7. Memorisation: Students are given lists of
target language vocabulary words and their native language equivalents and are
asked to memorise them. Students are also required to memorise grammatical
rules and grammatical paradigms such as verb conjugations.
8. Use words in Sentences: In order to show that students understand the
meaning and use of a new vocabulary item, they make up sentences in which they
use the new words.
9. Composition: The teacher gives the students a
topic to write about in the target language. The topic is based upon some
aspect of the reading passage of the lesson. Sometimes, instead of creating a
composition, students are asked to prepare a précis (pronounced as /preısı/).
17. Skills: The primary skills to be improved are “reading” and “writing”. Little
attention is given to speaking and listening, and almost no attention to
pronunciation.
THE DIRECT METHOD (DM)
DM was born as a
reaction to GTM because GTM cannot prepare learners for real life language
situations in which oral communication is the media.
1. Learning Theory: Inductive learning
is essential. There is a direct relation between form and meaning. L2 learning
is similar to L1 acquisition. There is a direct exposure to the target language.
Exposure of Long chunks in the target language. Learning occurs naturally.
2. Language Theory: Language is for oral
use. Each language is unique. There is a direct relation between form and
meaning. No other language should interfere when learning a language.
3. Culture: Not only art or literature,
but also other aspects of culture (namely, life style, customs, traditions,
institutions, food, daily habits, history, geography, etc.) Should be taken into consideration. Daily
speech is important.
4. Teacher's Role: The teacher usually
directs the interactions but he/she is not as dominant as in GTM. Sometimes
acts like a partner of the students.
5. Students' Role: Sts are active
participants. Sometimes pair works take place. Even the teacher takes roles in
activities.
6. Interactions: T- st and St - st interactions often occur.
7. Vocabulary Teaching: Pictures,
realia, examples, sample sentences are used to teach vocabulary. Use of L1 is
not allowed. There is a direct relation between form and meaning.
8. Grammar Teaching: Grammar is taught
inductively. Examples and drills are given and students are expected to
discover and acquire the rules. Drills like chain drill, yes question, no
question, or question are used to help students induce the rule.
9. Materials: Reading passages (for
topics), Dialogues (for situation), plays (for situations) are used.
10. Syllabus: Situational and topical syllabuses are used.
11. Role of L1: L1 is not permitted.
12. Evaluation: Sts' ability to use the language is tested. Not about language, the
language itself.
13. Goals and Objectives: Teaching Sts
how to communicate in the target language. Teaching of thinking in the target
language.
14. Error Correction: Sts' self correction.
15. Sts' Feelings: There is no information dealing with this issue.
16. Techniques: Reading aloud, Question
and answer exercise, self correction, conversation practice, fill-in-the-blank
exercise, dictation, drawing (for listening comprehension), and paragraph
writing.
17. Skills: Speaking, listening, reading
and writing are important skills. Especially speaking and listening are
emphasised. Vocabulary is over grammar.
THE AUDIO-LINGUAL
METHOD (ALM)
1. Learning Theory:
Learning is based
on the principles of Behaviourism. (Mim-mem approach).
Habit Formation is essential.
Habit Formation is essential.
Habit Formation
Reinforcement (Behaviour is likely to occur again)
Stimulus----organism
No reinforcement or negative reinforcement (Behaviour is not
likely to occur again)
Rules are induced
from examples. Explicit grammar rules are not given. Learning is inductive.
Habit formation is
actualised by means of repetitions and other mechanical drills.
2. Language Theory: Language is based on descriptive
linguistics. Every language is seen as its own unique system. The system is
comprised of several different levels. (i.e. phonological, morphological, and
syntactic). There is a natural order of skills. 1. Listening, 2. Speaking, 3. Reading
3. Culture: Culture consists of everyday
behaviour, and lifestyle of the target language community. Culture is presented
in dialogues.
4. Teacher’s Role: T is like an orchestra leader. S/he
directs and controls the language behaviour of the students. T is a good model
of the target language, especially for pronunciation and other oral skills. The
differences between Sts’ L1 and L2 should be known by the teacher.
5. Students’ Role: Sts are imitators of the teacher
as perfect model of the target language or the native speakers in the audio
recordings.
6. Interactions: T-St, ST- ST. Interactions
are mostly initiated by the teacher.
7. Vocabulary Teaching: Meaning is taught directly. L1
is prohibited because it may cause bad habit formations. Vocabulary is
introduced through dialogues.
8. Grammar Teaching: Explicit rules are not provided.
Students induce the rules through examples and drills. Students acquire grammar
by being exposed to patterns through mechanical drills.
9. Materials: Dialogues
10. Syllabus: Grammar points and sentence patterns in structural syllabus.
11. Role of L1: L1 is not allowed in the
classroom. It may cause interference and bad habit formation in L2.
12. Evaluation: Discrete-point tests are used. Each
item (question) should focus on only one point of the language at a time. E.g.
distinguishing between words in a minimal pair. Appropriate verb form in a
sentence.
13. Goals and Objectives: to enable students to speak and
write in the target language. To make students able to use the target language
automatically without stopping to think. To form new habits in the target
language.
14. Error Correction: Errors are corrected by the
teacher since errors may cause bad habit formation.
15. Sts’ Feelings: There are no principles related to Sts’ feelings.
16. Techniques:
1. Dialogue Memorisation
2. Minimal pairs: (for teaching pronunciation)
3.
Complete the dialogue
4. Grammar Games
5. Mechanical Drills
a) Repetition drill
b) Chain Drill
c) Single- slot
Substitution Drill (T gives one cue to be substituted)
d) Multiple-slot Substitution Drill (T gives more than one cue to be
substituted)
17. Skills: Listening and speaking are emphasised. There is a natural order of
skills.
1. Listening 2. Speaking 3. Reading
THE SILENT WAY
1.
Learning Theory: Cognitive Psychology is
the basis. Language learning is not habit formation. It is rule formation. Language
learning has a sequence from the known to the unknown. Students induce the
rules from examples and the languages they are exposed to, therefore learning
is inductive
2.
Language Theory: Languages of the world
share a number of features (e.g. every language uses subject, object; every
language has adjective, adverb, verb
...etc.) However each language is unique. Language is for self
expression (to express thoughts, perceptions, ideas and feelings). "Cognitive
Coding" helps learners learn the language. "Colour rods" and
"Fidel Chart" are used for cognitive coding.
3.
Culture: Culture is an inseparable part
of language. Language reflects culture. Everyday life, art, literature. etc.
should be learnt.
4.
Teachers' Role: The teacher is a
technician or an engineer who facilitates learning. Only the learner can do
learning. The teacher is aware of what the students already know and he/she can
decide the next step. The teacher is silent. Silence is a tool because teacher's silence gives the
responsibility to the student. Besides teacher's
silence helps students monitor themselves and improve their own inner
criteria.
5.
Students' Role: Students should make use
of what they already know. They are responsible for
their own learning. They actively take part in exploring the language. The teacher works with the students and the students work on the language. St-st interaction is important. Sts can learn from each other.
their own learning. They actively take part in exploring the language. The teacher works with the students and the students work on the language. St-st interaction is important. Sts can learn from each other.
6.
Interactions: The teacher is silent in
"T-st” interactions. St-st interactions are also possible
because students can learn from each other.
7.
Vocabulary Teaching: Vocabulary is
taught by means of visual aids and word-charts. Vocabulary is always recycled
by means of word-charts. Vocabulary is restricted at the beginning.
8.
Grammar Teaching: There is a focus on
the structures of the language although explicit grammar rules are never given.
9.
Materials: Sound Colour Charts (For
teaching pronunciation; one colour represents one sound), Colour Rods (for cognitive coding of
grammatical patterns), 8 Fidel Charts (used for sound spelling association.
10.
Syllabus: There is no linear structural syllabus. The teacher starts with what
students already know, and builds from one structure to the next. The syllabus
develops according to the students' learning needs.
11.
Role of L1: L1 can be used to give instructions when necessary. Meaning is made
clear by focusing the student's perceptions, not by translation. During
feedback sessions L1 be used at beginning levels. L1 can be exploited. For
example, similar sounds in L1 and L2 can be used to make students aware of
phonological similarities.
12.
Evaluation: The teacher may never give a
formal test. He/she assesses students' learning all the time. Continuous
monitoring by the teacher is essential.
13.
Goals and Objectives: Students should be
able to use the target language for self expression (to express their thoughts,
feelings, ideas). To help students improve their inner criteria for correctness.
Students should rely on themselves to be able to use the target language.
14.
Error Correction: Errors are natural and
inevitable. The teacher uses students' errors to decide where further work is
necessary. Self correction is necessary for the students to compare their own
production with their developing inner criteria. If students cannot
self-correct, the teacher supplies the correct language but only as a last
resort. Peer correction is also very common, but it should be in a co-operative
manner.
15.
Student's Feelings: Students' negative
feelings are treated by the teacher. During feedback sessions, students can
express their feelings like their fears, what they think about classes, and
learning a foreign language, their needs and wants. Students are encouraged to
co-operate with one another in order to create a relaxed and enjoyable
classroom atmosphere.
16. Techniques:
1. Teaching
pronunciation with "sound colour charts"
2. Cognitive
coding with colour rods.
3. Peer
correction to improve co-operative manner.
4. Self
correction gestures
5. Teacher's Silence
6. Structured
feedback: Students are invited to talk about the day's instruction (what
they have
learnt that day during classes). Students learn to take responsibility for their own learning by becoming aware of themselves, and by controlling and applying their own learning strategies.
learnt that day during classes). Students learn to take responsibility for their own learning by becoming aware of themselves, and by controlling and applying their own learning strategies.
7.
Fidel Charts: Used to teach sound spelling association.
8.
Word Charts: Used to teach and
recycle vocabulary. The words are written in different
colours so that students can learn basic pronunciation patterns.
colours so that students can learn basic pronunciation patterns.
17. Skills: Pronunciation is emphasised at the very beginning. It is important
that students
acquire the melody of the language. All four skills (reading, writing, speaking, and listening)
are worked on from the beginning.
acquire the melody of the language. All four skills (reading, writing, speaking, and listening)
are worked on from the beginning.
SUGGESTOPEDIA (Georgi Lazanov)
1.
Learning Theory: People use 5-10% of
their mental capacity. In order to make better use of our mental reserves,
limitations need to be desuggested. Students should eliminate the feelings that
they cannot be successful and thus, to help them overcome the barriers to
learning. Psychological barriers should be removed.
There are six principle theoretical
components through which desuggestion and suggestion
operate and that set up access to reserves.
operate and that set up access to reserves.
1. Authority: People remember best when the new information
comes from a reliable authoritative
source.
2. Infantilization: Authority is also used
to suggest a teacher-student relation like that of "parent-child"
relationship. In the child's role the learner takes part in role playing,
games, songs and gymnastic exercises that help the older student regain the
self confidence, spontaneity and receptivity of the child.
3. Double-planedness: The learner learns not only from the
instructions but also from the environment. Physical features of the classroom
are important.
4. Intonation: Varying intonation of the presented material
helps to avoid boredom. T should present the material with different intonation
patterns. Correct intonation patterns should be emphasised.
5. Rhythm:
Materials presented with varying rhythm and tones are more interesting.
6. Concert pseudo-passiveness: Materials presented with varying rhythm,
intonation, and tone should be accompanied by music. Music should have sixty
beats in a minute. Baroque concertos work very well for this purpose.
2.
Language Theory: Lazanov does not
articulate a theory of language. However according to this method communication
is a two-plane process. Language is the first of the two planes. In the second plane,
there are factors, which influence the linguistic message (e.g. the way one
dresses, non-verbal behaviours that affect the linguistic message).
3.
Culture: The culture, which students
learn, concerns the everyday life of people who speak the target language. The
use of fine arts is also common.
4.
Teachers' Role: Teacher is the authority.
Learners learn better if they get the information from a reliable authority. Students
must trust and respect that authority.
5.
Students' Role: Students play a child's
role (infantilization). They adopt a new identity (new name, job,
family...etc.) As they feel more secure,
they can be less inhibited.
6.
Interactions: “St-st” and “T-st”
interactions occur. Students often do "pair work" and "group
work".
7.
Vocabulary Teaching: Vocabulary is
emphasised. Claims about the success of the method often focus on the large
number of words that can be acquired. Comments and explanations about the
meanings can be provided in student's L1.
8.
Grammar Teaching: Grammar is taught
explicitly but minimally. Explicit grammar rules are provided in L1.
9.
Materials: Dialogues are used with their
translations in L1 on the opposite side. Texts with literary value are used. The
textbook posters are used for peripheral learning.
10.
Syllabus: A course lasts 30 days and ten units of study. Each unit has a long
dialogue consisting of 1200 words. There is grammar review and commentary
section with a list of vocabulary. The dialogues are graded by lexis and
grammar.
11.
Role of L1: L1 is used to make the meaning of dialogues clear. The teacher can
use L1 when necessary but he uses L1 less and less as the course proceeds.
12.
Evaluation: Evaluation is conducted on students' "in-class-performances" and not
through formal tests, which would threaten the relaxed atmosphere, which is
considered essential for accelerated learning.
13.
Goals and Objectives: Teachers hope to
accelerate the process by which students learn to use a foreign language for
everyday communication. For this, more of the students' mental power must be
tapped. This can be achieved by removing psychological barriers.
14.
Error Correction: At the beginning
levels, errors are not corrected immediately because the emphasis is on
communication. When errors of form occur, teachers uses the correct form later
on during class, because immediate interference by the teacher may destroy the
relaxed atmosphere in classes.
15. Student's Feelings: A great deal of attention is given to students' feelings. Students
should feel relaxed and secure. Teacher's existence and classmates' existence
should not threaten the individual. Individual's self-confidence is important. Choice
of new identity makes students feel more comfortable and secure. The classroom
conditions (temperature, lighting, armchairs) should supply students with the
feeling of relaxation and comfort.
16. Techniques:
¨
Classroom set up: dim lights, soft music, cushioned armchairs, and posters on the
walls.
¨
Positive Suggestion:
Þ
Direct Suggestion: The teacher tells
students they are going to be successful to create self-confidence.
Þ
Indirect Suggestion: This is provided by music and comfortable physical conditions of
the classroom.
¨
Peripheral Learning: Posters, lists, charts, texts, paintings, and graphs are hung on
the walls of the classroom. Students learn from these although their attentions
are not directly on these materials.
¨
Visualisation: Students are asked to close their eyes and concentrate on their
breathing. Then the teacher describes a scene or an event in detail so that
students think they are really there. When the scene is complete, the teacher
asks students to slowly open their eyes and return to the present. This can be
done just before students write a composition in order to activate their
creativity.
¨
Choose a New Identity: Students can be asked to write about their fictional new identity,
new home town, family, etc.
¨
First Concert: Music is played. The teacher begins a slow, dramatic reading,
synchronised in intonation with the music. The music is classical. Teacher's
voice is usually hushed, but rises and falls with the music.
¨
Second Concert: Students put their scripts
aside. Students close their eyes and listen as the teacher reads with musical
accompaniment. This time the content that is read by the teacher is emphasised
by the way the teacher reads the text. Music is secondarily important. At the
end of the concert, the class ends for the day.
¨
Primary Activation: Primary activation and
secondary activation are the components of the active phase of the lesson. Students
read the dialogue in the target language aloud as individuals or groups. They
read it sadly, angrily, and amorously.
¨
Secondary Activation: Students engage in various activities such as singing, dancing,
dramatising, and playing games. Linguistic forms are not important. Communication
is important. In order to make students focus on communication, activities are
varied.
17. Skills: Oral communication is
emphasised. Speaking and listening are important. Writing and reading are also
important. Students write imaginative compositions to improve their writing,
and read dialogues or texts to practise reading.
COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING (CLL)
1. Learning Theory: CLL advocates a
holistic approach to language learning. "True
human learning" is both cognitive and affective. This is termed "whole person learning".
A group of ideas concerning the psychological requirements for successful and
"non-defensive” learning
are collected under the acronym (SARD).
S A R D
Security Attention
& Aggression Retention
& Reflection Discrimination
Security: Students should feel secure to enter into a successful learning
experience. Classroom atmosphere, students' relations with each other,
teacher's attitude to students all affect students' feelings of security.
Attention: Attention is the learner's involvement
in learning.
Aggression: is to show what has been learnt for "self-assertion”
like a child who tries to show what he/she has learnt. The child tries to prove
the things he/she has learnt.
Retention: If the "whole person" is involved in the learning process,
what is retained is internalised and becomes a part of the learner's "new
persona" in the foreign language. The material should neither be too
old nor be too new or conversely too familiar. Retention will best take place
somewhere in between novelty and familiarity.
Reflection: Students need quiet reflection time in order to learn. The teacher
reads the text for three times and the students relax and listen for reflection.
Students also listen to their own voice from the tape for reflection.
Discrimination: Students
should discriminate the similarities and the differences among target language
forms by listening to themselves and the teacher carefully. They should also
listen to discriminate if what they say is similar or different from what the
teacher says.
E.g. Similarity:
Present Continuous: She is studying French
Past Continuous: Tom was cooking. (In Both tenses "-ing" is used)
Present Continuous: She is studying French
Past Continuous: Tom was cooking. (In Both tenses "-ing" is used)
Difference:
John visited his uncle (regular verb)
John bought a new car (irregular verb)
John visited his uncle (regular verb)
John bought a new car (irregular verb)
2. Language Theory: Language is for communication. Language is for developing creative
thinking. Culture is integrated with language. The focus shifts from grammar
and sentence formation to a "sharing
and belonging between persons". Language is what you learn and share
with others. Students should trust the learning process, the teacher and the
others.
3. Culture: Knowing the target culture is important to be successful in
communication. Culture is integrated with language. Social life style, art,
literature, customs, habits should be learnt.
4. Teacher's Role: T's initial role is that of a counsellor. The teacher tries to
remove the threatening factors in the classroom. Even the teacher stands behind
the students to reduce because the teacher's superior knowledge and his
existence are also threatening factors.
5. Students' Role: Initially the learner is dependent on the teacher. As s/he goes on
studying the language he becomes more and more independent.
6. Interactions: st-st, T-st
interactions occur in the classroom. In addition, group work, and pair
work tasks are carried out by students. Usually the teacher physically removes himself/herself from the circle in order to increase st-st interactions.
work tasks are carried out by students. Usually the teacher physically removes himself/herself from the circle in order to increase st-st interactions.
7. Vocabulary Teaching: Literal native language equivalents are given to the target
language in order to teach their
meanings. This makes meaning clear.
8. Grammar Teaching: Large chunks are analysed by means of equivalents in L1. It can be
explicit when necessary.
9. Materials: A textbook is not considered necessary. Materials may be developed
by the teacher as the course develops. Materials depend on students' needs. Conversations
are generated by the students depending on what they want to say in the target
language.
10. Syllabus: CLL does not use a conversational language syllabus, which sets out
in advance the grammar, vocabulary, and other language items to be taught and
the order in which they will be covered. Syllabus is developed in terms of
students' communication needs.
11. Role of L1: Students' security is initially enhanced by using their native
language. Where possible, literal native language equivalents are given to the
target language words that have been transcribed. This makes their meaning
clear and allows students to combine the target language words in different
ways to create new sentences. Directions in class, students' expressions of
feelings are in L1. In later steps, more and more L2 is used.
12.
Evaluation: A teacher-made classroom test would be
an integrative test rather than a discrete-
point test. Students are asked to write a paragraph or they can be given an oral interview.
point test. Students are asked to write a paragraph or they can be given an oral interview.
13. Goals and Objectives: Students should learn how to use the target language
communicatively. Students should learn about their own learning to take an
increasing responsibility about it. Non-defensive learning is the result when
the teacher and the students treat each other as a whole person.
14. Error Correction: The error is treated in a non-threatening way. The teacher repeats
the correct form without calling further attention to the error and the owner
of the error.
15. Sts' Feelings: Students' feelings are considered extremely important. One regular
activity is getting feedback from students' about their feelings; how they
feeling about learning a foreign language. Negative feelings may block students'
learning. Security is basic. Clear instructions, enough time, should be given
to the individual for the respond.
16. Techniques:
A) Transcription: The teacher writes the L1 equivalent of the text in the target
language on the board or a poster-sized paper in order to be able to refer
later. Students copy them in their notebooks.
B)
Reflection on Experience: Students tell about their feelings about language
learning
experience.
experience.
C) Reflective Listening: Students relax and listen to their own voices speaking the target language on the tape. The teacher may also
read the transcript while students are listening.
D) Human Computer: The
teacher repeats the correct form as many times as the students
need. The teacher never corrects the student's error. Only repeats the correct form.
need. The teacher never corrects the student's error. Only repeats the correct form.
E) Small Group Tasks:
Students learn from each other. Also small groups can let students
know each other well.
know each other well.
17.
Skills: In the early stages, students design the
syllabus. They decide what they want to say in
L2. The most important skills are listening comprehension and speaking.Reading
are also worked on.
L2. The most important skills are listening comprehension and speaking.
are also worked on.
THE TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE METHOD (TPR)
1. Learning Theory: There are three hypothesis:
A) Innate Bio-program: There exists a specific, innate bio-program for language learning,
which defines an optimal path for first and second language development. Children develop
listening competence before they develop the ability to speak. They make “a blue-print” of
the language first. They develop "a cognitive map" of the language during listening process.
which defines an optimal path for first and second language development. Children develop
listening competence before they develop the ability to speak. They make “a blue-print” of
the language first. They develop "a cognitive map" of the language during listening process.
B) Brain Lateralisation: The brain has two main parts: left hemisphere, and right hemisphere
, which have different learning functions. If both hemispheres are activated, learning is more
effective.
, which have different learning functions. If both hemispheres are activated, learning is more
effective.
C)
Stress (an affective filter): Stress intervenes
between the act of learning and what is to be
learned. The lower the stress is, the greater the learning becomes.
learned. The lower the stress is, the greater the learning becomes.
2.
Language Theory: Language is primarily
oral. It is just like the acquisition of native language. Learners first listen
(silent period), then oral production starts. Oral communication is crucial. Skilful
use of imperatives by the instructor can be helpful for the acquisition of many
vocabulary items and grammatical structures. Asher views the verb and
particularly the verb in the imperative as the central linguistic motif around which
language use and learning are organised.
3.
Culture: Culture is the lifestyle of
people who speak the language natively. Daily habits, social life traditions
should be learned.
4.
Teachers' Role: Initially the teacher is
the director of all student behaviour. In the later stages, the teacher is
being directed.
5.
Students' Role: Initially students are
the followers of the teacher. Usually after ten to twenty hours, of instruction
some students will be ready to speak the language. At this point they start to
direct the teacher.
6.
Interactions: T with whole group, T- respond by students non-verbally; Sts - Sts; St - st
7.
Vocabulary Teaching: Vocabulary is
introduced through imperatives. Verb is the kernel. Other categories like
adjective, adverb, and noun can be introduced around verb. Objects, especially
the objects in the immediate environment are introduced.
8.
Grammar Teaching: Imperatives play an
important role. Multi-word chunks,
single-word chunks are used with imperatives. The teacher uses his/her
creativity to introduce various grammatical patterns with the accompaniment of
imperatives.
E.g. For the introduction of “If " clause type 1
"Stand up if
you are from Ankara
"Smile if you are wearing a blue T-shirt"
"Smile if you are wearing a blue T-shirt"
9.
Materials: Objects around in the
classroom, visuals, written texts, tasks for kinaesthetic learning can be used.
10. Syllabus: Sentence based syllabus with grammatical and lexical criteria is used. TPR
requires initial attention to meaning rather than to the forms of items.
requires initial attention to meaning rather than to the forms of items.
11. Role of L1: The method is introduced in the students' L1. After the
introduction, rarely would
the mother tongue be used. Meaning is made through body movements.
the mother tongue be used. Meaning is made through body movements.
12.
Evaluation: Teachers will know
immediately whether or not students understand by observing heir students'
actions. Formal evaluations can be conducted simply by commanding individual students to perform a series of actions. As
students become more advanced, their Performance in the skits they have created
can become the basis for evaluation.
13.
Goals and Objectives: To make students
enjoy learning the target language and communicate with it. Stress should be
reduced.
14.
Error Correction: Errors are inevitable.
The teacher should be tolerant of students' errors; only major errors should be corrected. The
teacher should be gentle when correcting students' errors. As students get more
advanced, teachers can correct more minor errors.
15.
Student's Feelings: The teacher should
not force the students to speak. Silent period must be taken into consideration.
When they begin to speak, perfection is not necessary. Stress should be reduced.
The teacher should use "zany commands" and humorous skits of actions
to make classes more enjoyable.
16.Techniques:
A) Commands: Use of commands is the major technique. Commands are given to
students to
perform an action; actions make meaning clear.
perform an action; actions make meaning clear.
B) Role reversal: Students command their teacher and classmates to perform actions.
Students speak after the silent period. Students should not be forced before they feel ready.
Students speak after the silent period. Students should not be forced before they feel ready.
C) Action sequence: The teacher may give three connected commands (e.g. "Point to
the door,
walk to the door, and touch the door")
walk to the door, and touch the door")
17. Skills: Natural order of skills:
1. Listening
(Very important during the silent period)
2. Speaking
(teacher should not force sts
to produce the language especially during the silent
period sts are expected to produce the target language voluntarily)
period sts are expected to produce the target language voluntarily)
3. Reading
4. Writing
THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
(CA)
1. Learning Theory: Little is known
about the learning theory of “The Communicative Approach". Activities that
involve real communication promote learning. Language that is meaningful to the
learner supports the learning process.
2. Language Theory: Language is for
communication. The goal of language teaching is to develop "communicative
competence". Using the language appropriately in social contexts is
important and communicative competence should be acquired.
What is language according
to the Communicative Approach?
A) Language is a system for expression
of meaning.
B) The primary function of language is
for interaction and communication.
C) The structure of language reflects
its functional and communicative uses.
D)
The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural
features, but
categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse.
categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse.
3. Culture: Culture is the everyday life
of people. There are some important aspects of language which are important to
communication; for instance, the use of non-verbal behaviour. Body language,
which may differ from culture to culture.
4. Teacher's Role: The teacher is a
facilitator of his/her students' learning. He/she is a manager of classroom
activities. He/she acts as an advisor and monitors students' performance.
5. Students' Role: Students are
communicators. They are engaged in negotiating meaning actively. Students are
responsible are responsible managers of their own learning.
6. Interactions: St-st interactions take
place very often. Students benefit from group work, pair work, group
discussions, projects...etc.
7. Vocabulary Teaching: Meaning is
paramount. Meaning should be conveyed through visual aids, real objects,
models, and context. Vocabulary should be taught within the context.
8. Grammar Teaching: Each linguistic
form has a function. One function may be expressed with different forms.
e.g. (Asking for permission "May I go
out?" Or “Would you let me go out?”
etc.)
In addition, different forms
may have one function.
E.g. (The modal "can" has various functions)
"I can lift this
chair" = ability
"It can rain today" = strong
possibility
"Can I
use your telephone?" = asking for permission
Functions are
taught explicitly. Grammatical explanations can be given explicitly if it is believed to be useful for the acquisition of
the form and function.
9.
Materials: Authentic materials. Articles from magazines or newspapers,
songs, short stories, advertisements...etc., which are used by native speakers
in real life are used as class materials. Communicative activities (information
gap, opinion gap activities) are used to promote students' communication in
classes. Pictures, and other visual aids and realia are very important to
support meaning. Task based activities are also used to promote students'
involvement in classes.
10. Syllabus: Usually (but not always)
functional-notional syllabus is used (e.g. frequency, motion, location).
11. Role of L1: Students' L1 has no
particular role in the Communicative Approach. L2 should be used during not
only activities, but also when the teacher is giving explanations,
instructions, and homework. Students should see L2 as a tool for communication,
not a subject to study.
12. Evaluation: The teacher evaluates
students' accuracy and fluency. The teacher may give communicative tests, which
are integrative tests and which have real communicative function. The teacher
may tell students to write a letter to a friend to test their writing skill. Improvisation
of a situation orally can also be a means of evaluation of the students' oral
performance.
13. Goals and Objectives: To make
students communicatively competent (i.e., being able to use the target language
appropriately in a given context). For this reason, students need knowledge of
linguistic forms, meanings, and functions. Students must know that many
different forms can be used to perform a function, and one single form can
serve a variety of functions. Students should be able to choose the most
appropriate form for a specific function.
14. Error Correction: Errors of form can
be tolerated since they are natural outcome of the development of communication
skills. Students can have limited linguistic knowledge and still be successful
communicators.
15. Sts' Feelings: Students' motivation is important. Students should feel that they
are learning something useful for their lives. Students' security is enhanced
by many opportunities for co-operative interactions with their fellow students
and the teacher. The teacher gives students an opportunity to express ideas and
opinions on a regular basis so that students integrate the target language with
their own personality. Thus, they feel more secure about using the target
language. Games, dramas and other enjoyable activities are used to make
classroom atmosphere better, more friendly and relaxing.
16. Techniques:
a) Authentic Materials:
Genuine materials from newspapers, magazines, videos from real English TV channels, menus, time tables,
etc is used.
b) Scrambled Sentences: for cohesion and coherence.
c) Language Games: In order
to provide valuable communicative practice of the target language.
d) Picture Strip Story: This
activity provides opinion gaps. Students discuss which activity should come first.
e) Role Play: this technique provides the opportunity to practise
the target language in
various social contexts. If the role plays is unprepared improvisation it also provides
genuine communication (i.e., information gap - natural unpredictability of what each
participant will say to each other).
various social contexts. If the role plays is unprepared improvisation it also provides
genuine communication (i.e., information gap - natural unpredictability of what each
participant will say to each other).
17. Skills and
Language Areas: Language functions are emphasised
over forms. The target language is taught at supra sentential or discourse
level, too. Students learn cohesion and coherence. Conversation structure in
the target language is also reviewed. The four language skills are learnt from
the very beginning. "Skimming, and "Scanning" in reading and
listening are improved.
Bibliography
Celce-Murcia, M. (1991). Language Teaching
Approaches. In M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language.
(pp.3-10). Boston , Massachusetts
Brown, D. H. (1987). Principles of
Language Learning and Teaching. New
Jersey
Larsen-Freeman, D. (1993). Techniques
and Principles in Language Teaching. Hong Kong :
Oxford University
Richards, J. C. & Rodgers, T. S. (1990). Approaches and Methods
in Language Teaching: A description
and analysis. New York Cambridge University
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